When you look at the Creek Nation and their territorial claims, especially in North Carolina, here’s a map showing various planning sessions and dates. By the time numerous deportations began, the last session in 1827 left a parcel of land, and by 1832, in that treaty, the Creek Nation’s sovereignty was essentially dissolved. The Creek lands in Alabama were subdivided, and Creek citizens were allotted lands. This was a confusing period with fits and starts of small groups emigrating under different circumstances. By 1830, this process intensified. This treaty essentially dissolved the Creek Nation’s sovereignty, extending Alabama’s jurisdiction over their lands. Creek citizens received allotments, and heads of households received a half-section of land. This map shows some of the presentations in Chambers County, covering large sections where Creek citizens took most of the best lands.

The rush for land led to immense speculation and pressure on the Creek people, resulting in community-scale conflicts and incidents of people getting their allotments stolen. In early 1836, while small groups were emigrating, a group of peaceful Creek people was attacked in Georgia. Survivors escaped back across the river, leading to an organized process of retaliation. This incident, known as the Seminole Creek War, led to full-scale conflict. Lower Creek warriors attacked plantations, and state militias in Georgia organized to suppress hostilities, classifying militant lower towns as Red Sticks. The federal government intervened, triggering compulsory deportation and ending voluntary immigration. Hostile Creeks were forcibly deported, with some warriors carried in chains.

The conflict also pushed refugees into neighboring areas, including the Cherokee Nation. The influx of Creek people into the Cherokee Nation during the war worried Anglo Americans, who feared an alliance between Creeks and Cherokees against white settlers. Letters from officials like Isaac Baker to the governor expressed concerns about Creek refugees settling in Cherokee lands. This fear influenced military expeditions into Cherokee territory. Reports of armed Creeks hiding in the mountains led to increased military actions, like the expedition led by General Wool.

By 1837, the U.S. military decided to suppress the Cherokees due to the presence of Creek refugees. General Wool deployed officers to arrest these refugees, providing clothing and food upon capture. This led to the arrest of Creek refugees hiding in areas like the Valley River. Reports from missionaries like those from the Moravian Church described the capture of starving Creek refugees and their harsh treatment by soldiers.

Newspapers from April 1837 reported the capture and collection of Creek Indians by volunteers under General Wool’s command. Many Creeks hiding in the mountains were captured and sent to Fort Butler. From there, they were transported to the Cherokee agency and then to Ross’s Landing. This route was also used for the forced deportation of Cherokee citizens. The operation highlighted the brutal nature of forced deportations, involving soldiers rounding up people and marching them to collection points before transportation.

Creek refugees traveled from Ross’s Landing to places like Gunter’s Landing, where they were assembled with other refugees and prepared for deportation. Lieutenant Davis oversaw the water route for these deportations, loading Creek refugees onto flatboats and transporting them down the Tennessee River, through Muscle Shoals, and eventually to Fort Smith and the Creek Nation.

Despite attempts to gather all Creek refugees, many remained hidden in the Cherokee Nation. A letter from Creek refugees in August 1837 petitioned the Cherokee Council to allow them to stay, expressing their desire to live peacefully and obey Cherokee laws. The Cherokee Council allowed them to reside in the nation until they could return to the Creek Nation.

This complex and tragic history of the Creek Nation’s removal illustrates the multifaceted nature of forced migrations, the harsh realities faced by Native Americans, and the interwoven destinies of different tribes during this period. Thank you for your attention.